From 1788 onward, non-Indigenous Australians developed relationships with outdoor environments shaped by economic ambition, cultural attitudes imported from Britain and Europe, and the practical realities of a radically unfamiliar landscape. These relationships shifted dramatically across three key periods, each leaving distinct marks on Australian outdoor environments.
Early colonists largely perceived the Australian environment through a utilitarian lens shaped by Enlightenment rationalism and British colonial economics. The land was viewed as:
Pastoralism:
- From the 1820s, the squattocracy expanded rapidly beyond the settled districts, driving sheep and cattle across vast areas of inland NSW, Port Phillip (Victoria), and Queensland.
- Overgrazing caused soil compaction, erosion, and the replacement of native grasslands with hardier exotic grasses and shrubs.
- Rivers and waterholes were polluted; riverine vegetation was stripped for firewood and construction.
Timber getting:
- Demand for building materials, ship construction, and firewood drove rapid deforestation of coastal and near-coastal forests.
- Red cedar (Toona australis) in NSW was essentially commercially extinct within decades of colonisation.
Early agriculture:
- Convict and free-settler farming initially concentrated around Sydney, Hobart, and later Melbourne.
- European crops and farming methods were imposed on soils poorly suited to them, often resulting in rapid degradation.
Exploration:
- Explorers such as Bass and Flinders (coastal mapping), Hume and Hovell (1824, overland to Port Phillip), and Burke and Wills (1860) documented environments but also opened them to subsequent exploitation.
KEY TAKEAWAY: Early colonial relationships were characterised by extraction and transformation — the land was seen as something to be subdued and converted to profit, not managed sustainably.
The discovery of gold (Victoria 1851, NSW 1851, WA 1893) and rapid population growth intensified environmental pressures while simultaneously generating the wealth that would, paradoxically, fund early conservation efforts.
Gold mining:
- The Victorian gold rush transformed landscapes around Ballarat, Bendigo, and Castlemaine. Hydraulic sluicing (puddling) destroyed creek systems; open-cut and deep shaft mining left scarred landscapes.
- Deforestation for mine timber and fuel denuded the forests of central Victoria.
- Alluvial gold-seeking fouled rivers with sediment — the Loddon and Loddon tributaries remained turbid for decades.
Closer settlement:
- Selection Acts (1860s) in Victoria, NSW, and Queensland opened Crown lands for small farmers, accelerating the clearing of box-ironbark forests and mallee.
- Ring-barking — girdling trees to kill them — was used to ‘improve’ land for pasture on an enormous scale.
Acclimatisation societies:
- From the 1850s, Acclimatisation Societies deliberately introduced European animals (foxes for hunting, rabbits for food, sparrows, starlings, trout) and plants (blackberries, willows) — causing ecological devastation that continues today.
- The rabbit explosion from the 1870s onward caused massive soil erosion and the collapse of ground-cover vegetation across inland Australia.
Early conservation:
- Royal National Park (1879, NSW) — the world’s second national park — reflected growing awareness among urban middle classes that wild nature had aesthetic and recreational value.
- Victoria’s Tower Hill reserve (1892) was set aside, though not effectively protected.
- Royal Society of Victoria and similar bodies began documenting and advocating for the protection of flora and fauna.
EXAM TIP: The pre-Federation period is important for introducing the tension between development and conservation that dominates Australian environmental history. Examiners may ask you to explain how gold mining changed specific Victorian landscapes — use Ballarat/Castlemaine as examples.
Post-Federation Australia saw a complex interplay between continued resource exploitation and growing conservation consciousness, culminating in significant environmental legislation and the emergence of the modern environment movement.
Continued primary industry expansion:
- The 20th century saw massive expansion of wheat farming, irrigation agriculture (especially Murray-Darling Basin), and timber harvesting.
- Snowy Mountains Hydro-Electric Scheme (1949–1974): One of Australia’s largest engineering projects, redirecting water from the Snowy River system to irrigate inland regions — dramatically altering alpine and riverine environments.
- Timber industry expanded into old-growth forests, particularly in Victoria’s Central Highlands (Mountain Ash Eucalyptus regnans forests).
Recreation and tourism:
- Post-WWII prosperity saw rapid growth in outdoor recreation — bushwalking, skiing, camping.
- Alpine villages (Hotham, Falls Creek, Thredbo) developed as ski resorts from the 1950s–60s.
- The Bushwalkers’ Federation of Victoria (founded 1934) and similar clubs advocated for national park establishment.
National park expansion:
- Victoria’s Wilsons Promontory (national park 1898, expanded throughout 20th century)
- Grampians (Gariwerd) National Park declared 1984
- Alpine National Park declared 1989 — the largest in Victoria at ~646,000 ha
Environmental legislation:
- Environment Protection Act 1970 (Vic) — Victoria’s first dedicated environmental law
- National Parks Act 1975 (Vic)
- Environment Protection (Impact of Proposals) Act 1974 (Cmwth) — early federal EIA legislation
Summary comparison across periods:
| Period | Dominant Attitude | Key Practice | Environmental Impact |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1788–1859 | Extraction | Pastoral expansion, deforestation | Soil erosion, stream degradation |
| 1860–1900 | Development + early concern | Mining, closer settlement, early parks | Landscape scarring, introduced species |
| 1901–1990 | Management emerging | Hydro schemes, recreation, legislation | Mixed — some protection, ongoing exploitation |
VCAA FOCUS: You must be able to describe relationships across all three periods and explain how attitudes changed over time. Use specific Victorian examples for each period. The shift from pure extraction to conservation consciousness is the key narrative arc.
